Towards the development of analytical monograph specifications for the quality assessment of the medicinal plant Phyllanthus urinaria.

Many people in developing countries rely on herbal remedies for their primary healthcare needs. The challenge however is that several of these products lack proper documentation of quality and safety. To ensure consistent quality, validated methods are needed to establish and control quality attributes associated with identity, purity, and levels of bioactive constituents of the respective herbal materials. The present study focused on Phyllanthus urinaria (PU), a widely used medicinal plant in Ghana and West Africa that lacks the necessary quality control standards. The study aimed to develop an HPTLC identification method, which together with UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS analysis established the identity of PU samples and differentiated PU from other closely related Phyllanthus species. Quantitative UPLC and HPTLC methods were developed to assess the contents of selected active markers in the PU samples, which invariably led to the proposal of acceptance criteria for the active markers. Prior to the content analyses, the sample extraction procedure was optimized through the use of Design of Experiment method. The effects of harvest time and geographic origin on the content of active compounds were demonstrated in the investigations. PU samples were also found to be contaminated with higher levels of pesticides like chlorpyrifos and folpet. Essentially, this study provides analytical protocols, insights into the quality status of PU samples in Ghana, and analytical specifications contained in a drafted monograph for future consideration in regional and subregional African pharmacopoeias.

In Vitro Cercaricidal Activity, Acute Toxicity, and GC/MS Analysis of Some Selected Ghanaian Medicinal Plants.

Schistosomiasis is a human parasitic disease caused by the Schistosoma species and is recognised in public health as second to malaria in terms of its socioeconomic impact on humans. Four local plants native to many tribes in Ghana and known for their medicinal properties against some diseases were assessed for their cercaricidal activity against Schistosoma mansoni cercariae. The plants, namely, Newbouldia laevis stem bark (NLSB), Spathodea campanulata stem bark (SCSB), Momordica charantia leaves (MCL), and Ocimum viride leaves (OVL), were extracted for their active metabolites using methanol. Preliminary phytochemical screening was carried out on all plant extracts and powdered samples. The crude extracts were tested against S. mansoni cercariae in vitro using Balanites aegyptiaca as the positive control. The percentage of mortalities for each extract was recorded. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis was conducted on all the plant extracts. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of saponins, glycosides, triterpenoids, sterols, alkaloids, flavonoids, and tannins in almost all the extracts. GC/MS analysis showed the presence of medicinally important active volatile compounds in each extract such as thymol, n-hexadecanoic acid, phytol, and maltol. All four plants showed relatively different levels of activity against S. mansoni cercariae at different times and concentrations. The LC50 values of the plant extracts were determined at the end of the assay. At 240 min, NLSB, SCSB, MCL, and OVL extracts had LC50 values of 487.564, 429.898, 197.696, and 0.129 µg/mL, respectively. Hence, this study revealed the potency of Ocimum viride leaves, Momordica charantia leaves, Spathodea campanulata stem bark, and Newbouldia laevis stem bark against S. mansoni. These plants could therefore be exploited as possible candidates for curbing schistosomiasis.

Anthelmintic Activities of Extract and Ellagitannins from Phyllanthus urinaria against Caenorhabditis elegans and Zoonotic or Animal Parasitic Nematodes.

The aerial parts of Phyllanthus urinaria are used in traditional medicine in West Africa against helminthiasis, but their anthelmintic potential has not been evaluated until now. Within the current study, a hydroacetonic extract (AWE) and fractions and isolated ellagitannins from P. urinaria were, therefore, tested in vitro against Caenorhabditis elegans and the larvae of the animal parasites Toxocara canis, Ascaris suum, Ancylostoma caninum, and Trichuris suis. Compounds 1:  - 13: , mainly representing ellagitannins, were isolated using different chromatographic methods, and their structures were elucidated by HR-MS and 1H/13C-NMR. AWE exerted concentration-dependent lethal effects (LC50 of 2.6 mg/mL) against C. elegans and inhibited larval migration of all animal parasites tested (T. suis L1 IC50 24.3 µg/mL, A. suum L3 IC50 35.7 µg/mL, A. caninum L3 IC50 112.8 µg/mL, T. canis L3 IC50 1513.2 µg/mL). The anthelmintic activity of AWE was mainly related to the polar, tannin-containing fractions. Geraniin 1: , the major ellagitannin in the extract, showed the strongest anthelmintic activity in general (IC50 between 0.6 and 804 µM, depending on parasite species) and was the only compound active against A. caninum (IC50 of 35.0 µM). Furosin 9: was least active despite structural similarities to 1: . Among the parasites tested, Trichuris suis L1 larvae turned out to be most sensitive with IC50 of 0.6, 6.4, 4.0, 4.8, and 2.6 µM for geraniin 1: , repandusinic acid A 3: , punicafolin 8: , furosin 9: , and phyllanthusiin A 10: , respectively.

Diversity and antibiograms of bacteria isolated from cutaneous leishmaniasis wounds in the Nkwanta South District of Ghana.

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne disease caused by an intracellular protozoan parasite. The presence of secondary bacterial infections in cutaneous leishmaniasis wounds exacerbate lesion development and could lead to delay in the healing process. This study sought to determine the resistance patterns of bacteria co-infecting cutaneous leishmaniasis wounds from selected communities in the Nkwanta district. Various bacteria were isolated and characterized from exudates obtained from wound swabs collected with sterile cotton tipped applicators. Confirmation of bacterial identity was done using the analytical profile index and the matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of flight mass spectrometry. Antibiotic susceptibility tests were performed using agar disc diffusion method according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute breakpoint values. A total of eleven (11) secondary bacterial species (spp) were isolated from the 33 wound samples that tested positive for Leishmania kinetoplast DNA, among which Staphylococcus aureus was the most predominant (31%). The pathogenic bacteria that colonized the wounds included Bacillus subtilis (23.8%), Pantoea species (11.9%), Klebsiella pneumoniea (7.1%), Enterobacter cloacae (7.1%), Aeromonas species (4.8%), Serratia marcescens (4.8%), Serratia liquefacien (2.4%), Serratia plymutheca (2.4%), Providencia rettgeri (2.4%) and Cronobacter species (2.4%). Most of the isolates were resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics and the third-generation cephalosporin. Notably, 84.6% of the S. aureus isolates were methicillin and ciprofloxacin resistant whilst 92.3% were resistant to ampicillin. About sixty-nine percent (69.2%) showed intermediate susceptibility to Erythromycin. Additionally, S. plymutheca was resistant to all the test antibiotics. This study suggests colonization of cutaneous leishmaniasis wounds with varied bacterial species that are mostly resistant to beta-lactam group of antibiotics.

Biodiversity: the overlooked source of human health.

Biodiversity is the measure of the variation of lifeforms in a given ecological system. Biodiversity provides ecosystems with the robustness, stability, and resilience that sustains them. This is ultimately essential for our survival because we depend on the services that natural ecosystems provide (food, fresh water, air, climate, and medicine). Despite this, human activity is driving an unprecedented rate of biodiversity decline, which may jeopardize the life-support systems of the planet if no urgent action is taken. In this article we show why biodiversity is essential for human health. We raise our case and focus on the biomedicine services that are enabled by biodiversity, and we present known and novel approaches to promote biodiversity conservation.

Development of an Analytical Workflow to Support the Establishment of Monographs in African Pharmacopoeias - Combretum mucronatum Leaves as Example.

Herbal medicines are invaluable in African medicine, but quality and safety are not documented in many cases. Besides controlled farming, validated quality control methods are needed to ensure identity, purity, and content. Analytical specifications within modern monographs are needed for consistent batch quality. Combretum mucronatum leaves are widely used in West Africa, but state-of-the-art quality control methods and specifications are non-existent. The aim of the following study was the development of ICH-validated chromatographic protocols for identity, purity, content assay, and analytical specifications for consideration into pharmacopoeial monographs. UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS/MS was used for untargeted phytochemical information on composition. Optimisation of extraction was based on phytochemical profiling. HPTLC was used for differentiation of C. mucronatum from other Combretum species and UPLC for simultaneous determination of 7 marker compounds. C. mucronatum batch analyses (n = 49) investigated the influence of harvest time and geographical origin. Pesticides screening from a 349-compound panel were carried out. 30 compounds, identified by LC-MS, were used for characterization of the plant material. Orietin, isoorientin, vitexin and isovitexin were used as specific marker compounds for qualitative and quantitative HPTLC purposes, while UPLC quantified additionally epicatechin, procyanidins B2 and C1. Influence of harvest time and geographic origin on the content of marker compounds was observed. Differences in the metabolite profiles of C. mucronatum compared to related Combretum species were established for quality control purposes. Contamination with high amoounts of chlorpyrifos, and folpet (sum of folpet and phtalimide, expressed as folpet) were also observed.The study provides analytical protocols, analytical specifications and a drafted monograph for consideration for African pharmacopoeias, and reveals potential challenges in the quality of C. mucronatum.

Quality assessment of African herbal medicine: A systematic review and the way forward.

BACKGROUND: In Africa, herbalism supplements allopathic medicine's efforts to ensure Universal Health Coverage attainment. This review was conducted to identify and to summarise current literature on methodological approaches used for quality control of herbal medicines in Africa, to evaluate the gaps associated with existing strategies within context of best practices, and make recommendations for future improvements. METHODS: A systematic search was conducted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Articles were screened and assessed for eligibility. RESULTS: 118 articles were included into the study. There was a high preference for impurity profiling tests (77%) indicating the prioritization for tests that guarantee safety despite the limited analytical resources available. Other classes of tests reported included identification tests (29%), physicochemical tests (18%), and content assays (12%). Although standard methods exist in preparing samples for impurity tests, different techniques were observed in different studies, and this could lead to differences in analytical outcomes. Content assays focused on single marker assessments, which may be inadequate to comprehensively assess the quality of products. CONCLUSION: This review provides knowledge of existing strengths and challenges for herbal medicine quality assessments in Africa. For future it is recommended to implement more studies on contaminants (e.g. mycotoxins) and pharmaceutical adulterants. The use of chemometrics to develop analytical methods should be promoted. Also, stakeholders in the medicine quality industry in Africa need to effectively collaborate to establish a well co-ordinated and harmonized system to provide a sustainable framework for the GACP and GMP guided production and quality assurance of herbal medicines.

Evaluation of Dermal Toxicity and Wound Healing Activity of Cnestis ferruginea Vahl ex DC.

Cnestisferruginea is a tropical plant, which is traditionally used in the treatment and management of various conditions including skin infections and wounds. The aim of this study was to investigate the dermal toxicity and wound healing potential of C. ferruginea. Ten millimeter full-thickness mucosal wounds were created on the dorsal midportion of the Sprague Dawley rats. Wounds were treated with 10, 5, and 2.5% w/w aqueous creams, prepared from the methanol extract of the root bark of C. ferruginea (CFM). The wound tissues were harvested on day 21 for histology studies. Compared with the untreated group, 10, 5, and 2.5% w/w CFM-treated wounds significantly reduced the wound size over the study period (P < 0.0001). Tissue histology revealed a healed wound with well-regenerated collagen and skin appendages with no pus cells. A skin irritation test was conducted on CFM, as well as the dermal toxicity of CFM was determined in the repeated dose and acute dermal toxicity bioassays. These tests revealed that CFM showed no toxic effect on the skin and showed that CFM was not a skin irritant. C. ferruginea exhibited wound healing activity, which gives credence to its folkloric use.

Regulation of Nrf2 and NF-κB activities may contribute to the anti-inflammatory mechanism of xylopic acid.

Xylopic acid (XA) is a kaurene diterpene which naturally exists in African plants such as Xylopia aethiopica. It has been established to exhibit acute and chronic anti-inflammatory activities from our earlier studies. This current work sets out to shed light on the potential molecular target(s) of xylopic acid. Selection of investigated targets (NF-κB, Nrf2 and PTP1B) was based on an unbiased approach, using the SPiDER in silico prediction tool, and a candidate approach, examining well-known anti-inflammatory targets. Reporter gene assays were used to test for altered NF-κB and Nrf2 activities in transfected HEK or CHO cells, respectively, and immunoblot and flow cytometric analyses examined protein expression of the Nrf2/NF-kB target genes HO-1 and VCAM-1 in HUVEC. An effect of XA on PTP1B activity assay was studied using an in vitro enzyme assay with recombinant human enzyme and pNPP as substrate as well as by looking at insulin receptor phosphorylation in HepG2 cells. XA at 30 µM significantly (p < 0.001) inhibited the NF-κB-dependent reporter gene expression and enhanced activation of Nrf2 in a concentration-dependent manner when compared to the control. XA also marginally increased HO-1 protein expression levels while expression of VCAM-1 was reduced to 70% in XA-treated endothelial cells. However, XA did not show any sign of inhibition of PTP1B or a related phosphatase. Our findings suggest that the anti-inflammatory mechanism of XA entails the inhibitory effect on NF-κB and an increased activity of Nrf2, accompanied by increased expression of HO-1 and reduced expression of VCAM-1.

Sensitivity Patterns, Plasmid Profiles and Clonal Relatedness of Multi-Drug Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Isolated From the Ashanti Region, Ghana.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a major cause of most opportunistic nosocomial infections in Ghana. The study sought to characterize P. aeruginosa isolates from market environments, poultry farms and clinical samples of patients from 2 district hospitals in the Ashanti region of Ghana. The genetic relatedness, plasmid profiles and antimicrobial sensitivity of the isolates were investigated. Culture based isolation and oprL gene amplification were used to confirm the identity of the isolates. Susceptibility testing was conducted using the Kirby Bauer disk diffusion method. Random whole genome typing of the P. aeruginosa strains was done using Enterobacterial repetitive-intergenic consensus based (ERIC) PCR assay. The most active agents against P. aeruginosa isolates were ceftazidime (90%), piperacillin (85%), meropenem, cefipeme and ticarcillin/clavulanic acid (81.6%). The isolates were most resistant to gentamycin (69%), ciprofloxacin (62.1%), ticarcillin (56.3%) and aztreonam (25%). About 65% (n = 38) of the multi-drug resistant (MDR) P. aeruginosa isolates harbored 1 to 5 plasmids with sizes ranging from 2 to 116.8 kb. A total of 27 clonal patterns were identified. Two major clones were observed with a clone showing resistance to all the test antipseudomonal agents. There is therefore a need for continued intensive surveillance to control the spread and development of resistant strains.

Anthelmintic Agents from African Medicinal Plants: Review and Prospects.

Soil-transmitted helminthiasis affects more than 1.5 billion people globally and largely remains a sanitary problem in Africa. These infections place a huge economic burden on poor countries and affect livestock production, causing substantial economic losses and poor animal health. The emergence of anthelmintic resistance, especially in livestock, and the potential for its widespread in humans create a need for the development of alternative therapies. Medicinal plants play a significant role in the management of parasitic diseases in humans and livestock, especially in Africa. This report reviews anthelmintic studies that have been conducted on medicinal plants growing in Africa and published within the past two decades. A search was made in various electronic databases, and only full articles in English were included in the review. Reports show that aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts and polar fractions obtained from these crude extracts form the predominant (80%) form of the extracts studied. Medicinal plants, extracts, and compounds with different chemical groups have been studied for their anthelmintic potential. Polyphenols and terpenoids are the most reported groups. More than 64% of the studies employed in vitro assays against parasitic and nonparasitic nematode models. Egg hatch inhibition, larval migration inhibition, and paralysis are the common parameters assessed in vitro. About 72% of in vivo models involved small ruminants, 15% rodents, and 5% chicken. Egg and worm burden are the main factors assessed in vivo. There were no reports on interventions in humans cited within the period under consideration. Also, few reports have investigated the potential of combining plant extracts with common anthelmintic drugs. This review reveals the huge potential of African medicinal plants as sources of anthelmintic agents and the dire need for in-depth clinical studies of extracts, fractions, and compounds from African plants as anthelmintic agents in livestock, companion animals, and humans.

Antimicrobial properties of Cnestis ferruginea Vahl ex DC.

Scientific research into developing new antimicrobials from plants continues to be an interesting area for many scientists. This is because the resistance of microorganisms to anti-infective agents has affected a wide range of conditions, some of which are life-threatening. This study aimed to investigate the antimicrobial properties of Cnestis ferruginea (CF). Powdered roots of Cnestis ferruginea were extracted with petroleum ether (CFP), ethyl acetate (CFE) and methanol (CFM). The antimicrobial and microbial resistance modifying activity profiles of the extracts were studied against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 4853, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, clinical strains of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumonia, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Proteus mirabilis and Candida albicans. CFP and CFE showed no activity against the test organisms. CFM had mean zones of growth inhibition in the range of 11.0 ± 0.5 to 22.17 ± 0.24 mm against the test organisms. The MIC of CFM was within the range of 0.31 and 5.0 mg/mL, with MBC/MFC range of 2.5-20.0 mg/mL. The time-kill kinetics studies showed CFM is a static agent. At sub-inhibitory concentrations, CFM was able to increase the susceptibility of the test organisms to standard antibiotics from the range of 1-8 folds. CFM reduced the formation of biofilms from 100% to 56.59%, 62.33%, 65.89% and 71.88% against K. pneumonia, S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa, respectively. The findings of this study show that C. ferruginea possesses antimicrobial activity and therefore gives credence to its folkloric use.

Prevalence and Phenotypic and Genotypic Resistance Mechanisms of Multidrug-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Strains Isolated from Clinical, Environmental, and Poultry Litter Samples from the Ashanti Region of Ghana.

Background: Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a major global health challenge. Reports on the prevalence of multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa, a common pathogenic bacterium implicated in nosocomial infections and poultry diseases, are limited in Ghana. This study therefore sought to determine the prevalence of P. aeruginosa from hospitals, poultry farms, and environmental samples from the Ashanti region of Ghana. Methodology. Stool, urine, and blood samples from 364 patients from two hospitals in the Ashanti region of Ghana were randomly sampled. P. aeruginosa was isolated and confirmed using routine selective media and PCR-based oprL gene amplification. The Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method employing EUCAST breakpoint values was used to identify multidrug-resistant strains. The occurrence of common antibiotic inactivating enzymes and resistance encoding genes and the assessment of strain efflux capacity were investigated with double disc synergy test (DDST), imipenem-EDTA synergy test, phenylboronic acid test, D-test, routine PCR, and ethidium bromide agar-cartwheel method. Results: A total of 87 (9.7%, n = 87/900) P. aeruginosa isolates were confirmed from the samples. 75% (n = 65/87) were resistant to more than one group of antipseudomonal agents, while 43.6% (n = 38/87) were multidrug-resistant (MDR). High prevalence of extended spectrum ß-lactamases (84.2%), metallo-ß-lactamases (34.1%), and AmpC inducible cephalosporinases (50%) was observed in the MDR strains. About 57.8% of the MDR strains showed moderate to very high efflux capacity. Class 1 integrons were detected in 89.4% of the MDR isolates but ß-lactamase encoding genes (bla SHV , bla TEM , bla CTX-M , bla VIM , and bla IMP ) were not detected. Conclusion: Surveillance of antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria should be routinely conducted in clinical and veterinary practice in Ghana to inform selection of antibiotics for therapeutic use.

In Vitro Anthelmintic Activity of Ethanol Stem Bark Extract of Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth.

Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth bark is used in the traditional medicine as a vermifuge. This study sought to determine the anthelmintic activity of the stem bark extract of Albizia ferruginea. The powdered A. ferruginea stem bark was extracted with ethanol. Phytochemical screening was carried out on A. ferruginea ethanol extract (AFE) and then screened for its anthelmintic property against Pheretima posthuma and Haemonchus contortus using the adult motility assay. The effect of AFE and its fractions on the anthelminthic activity of mebendazole and albendazole were also determined using the adult worm (P. posthuma) motility assay. AFE showed a dose-dependent anthelmintic activity against P. posthuma and H. contortus. The least concentration of AFE (0.5 mg/mL) paralyzed and killed P. posthuma within 272.50 ± 12.42 min and 354.50 ± 5.06 min of exposure, respectively. AFE at the least test concentration (0.14 mg/mL) caused paralysis and induced death of H. contortus, after at 63.50 ± 2.98 and 254.96 ± 2.44 min of exposure, respectively. AFE extract at 0.25 and 0.125 mg/mL increased the paralytic and helminthicidal activities of albendazole. The paralytic and helminthicidal activities of mebendazole were reduced when combined with AFE (0.25 and 0.125 mg/mL). Among the three fractions obtained from AFE, the methanol fraction showed the highest anthelmintic activity. The methanol fraction at 0.5 mg/mL caused paralysis after 69.90 ± 0.15 min and death of worm after 92.53 ± 0.74 min of exposure. The petroleum ether and ethyl acetate fractions showed relatively low anthelmintic activity. Phytochemical screening of AFE revealed the presence of tannins, saponins, glycosides, alkaloids, and coumarins. The results from this study show that A. ferruginea possesses anthelmintic activity which gives credence to its folkloric use.

In vitro screening of plant extracts traditionally used as cancer remedies in Ghana - 15-Hydroxyangustilobine A as the active principle in Alstonia boonei leaves.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Cancer represents a major health burden and drain on the global healthcare systems. Traditional African medicine widely use a variety of plant species for treatment of different kinds of cancer. A previous systematic survey by traditional healers in the Ashanti region of Ghana revealed a good overview on the plant species and herbal materials used for the different types of cancer. AIMS OF THE STUDY: The following study aimed to investigate 18 herbal materials from 10 plant species based on the cancer survey in Ghana regarding potential cytotoxicity against different cancer cell lines under in vitro conditions followed by subsequent bioassay-guided fractionation towards the active principle. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Ethanol-water (1:1) extracts were tested (1-100 µg/mL) against a panel of cancer cell lines according to their respective traditional use. Selected extracts with relevant cytotoxicity in this screening were also tested against common pediatric malignancies (leukemias (HL-60, REH) and Ewing sarcoma (RD-ES and CADO-ES1)). Bioassay-guided fractionation of the hydroalcoholic extract from Alstonia boonei was performed by liquid-liquid chromatography and preparative HPLC. Preliminary mechanistic studies on the mode of action were performed by flow cytometric cell cycle analysis as well as apoptosis and necrosis staining. RESULTS: Screening of plant extracts revealed relevant cytotoxicity against all tested cancer cell lines for Alstonia boonei leaves and stem of Paulinia pinnata. The A. boonei extract was additionally found to be active against common pediatric tumor types (leukemias and Ewing sarcoma). Bioassay-guided fractionation of the A. boonei extract revealed the presence of 15-hydroxyangustilobine A 1 as the active principle (IC50 26 µM against MCF-7 cells). This is the first report of this compound in A. boonei. 1 was shown to lead to cell cycle arrest in the G2/M-phase (MCF-7 cells), triggering cells at least partially into apoptosis. CONCLUSION: In summary, an appreciable in vitro activity was revealed for the leaf extract from A. boonei and the isolated vallesamine type indole alkaloid 1, which has to be investigated in future studies towards a potential clinical use.

Ethnomedicinal survey and mutagenic studies of plants used in Accra metropolis, Ghana.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Majority of people living in Ghana and many other developing countries rely on traditional medicinal plants for their primary healthcare. These plants are used either alone or in combination to manage a wide range of ailments. However, most of these plants have not been investigated for their mutagenic effects. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study, therefore aimed at evaluating the mutagenic activity of the most frequently used medicinal plants amongst Ghanaians living within the Accra metropolis, Ghana. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Validated questionnaires were administered to 53 herbalists and herbal medicines dealers in the Makola, Madina and Nima communities. Plants that were identified as being frequently used were investigated for their mutagenicity using the Ames test. RESULTS: A total of 110 medicinal plants belonging to 53 families were identified as most frequently used plants in the study sites. These are used to treat various ailments including gastric ulcer, fever, malaria, male impotence, diabetes, typhoid, high blood pressure and candidiasis. Thirteen samples (52%) showed moderate to high mutagenicity in the TA 100 bacterial strain before and after metabolism with rat liver enzyme. CONCLUSIONS: The study showed that over half of the frequently used medicinal plants showed moderate to high mutagenicity before and after metabolism at the concentration of a 100 µg/mL. This may have implications for the safety of those who use them to manage diseases. These findings will suggest the need for an in-depth study of the mutagenic potentials of plants commonly used by indigenous people and more especially for those exhibiting high mutagenicity in this study.

Assessment of Wound-Healing Properties of Medicinal Plants: The Case of Phyllanthus muellerianus.

Phyllanthus muellerianus (Family Euphorbiaceae) is a shrub, which is widely distributed in West Africa and employed traditionally as a wound-healing agent especially in Ghana. The aim of the study was to determine the in vivo wound-healing activity of aqueous aerial part extract of P. muellerianus (PLE) and its major isolate, geraniin. Excision and incision wound models were used to determine the wound-healing activity. Wounds were treated with PLE (0.25, 0.5, and 1% w/w) and geraniin (0.1, 0.2, and 0.4% w/w) aqueous creams. PLE and geraniin significantly (p < 0.001) increased wound contraction rate and hydroxyproline production compared to untreated wounds. Histological studies of wound tissues showed high levels of fibroblasts and increased collagen content and cross-linking in PLE and geraniin-treated wound tissues. Immuno-histochemical investigations revealed high levels of TGF-ß1 in PLE and geraniin-treated wound tissues compared to the untreated wound tissues. Tensile strength of incised wounds was significantly (p < 0.05) high in PLE and geraniin-treated wounds. PLE (0.1-100 µg/mL) significantly (p < 0.001) reduce LDH release from HaCaT-keratinocytes compared to the untreated cells. PLE and geraniin possess wound healing and cytoprotective effect.

Effect of Phenotypic Screening of Extracts and Fractions of Erythrophleum ivorense Leaf and Stem Bark on Immature and Adult Stages of Schistosoma mansoni.

Schistosomiasis is a disease caused by a flatworm parasite that infects people in tropical and subtropical regions of Sub-Saharan Africa, South America, China, and Southeast Asia. The reliance on just one drug for current treatment emphasizes the need for new chemotherapeutic strategies. The aim of this study was to determine the phenotypic effects of extracts and fractions of leaf and stem bark of Erythrophleum ivorense (family Euphorbiaceae), a tree that grows in tropical parts of Africa, on two developmental stages of Schistosoma mansoni, namely, postinfective larvae (schistosomula or somules) and adults. Methanol leaf and stem bark extracts of E. ivorense were successively fractionated with acetone, petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and methanol. These fractions were then incubated with somules at 0.3125 to 100 µg/mL and with adults at 1.25 µg/mL. The acetone fractions of both the methanol leaf and bark of E. ivorense were most active against the somules whereas the petroleum ether fractions showed least activity. For adult parasites, the acetone fraction of methanol bark extract also elicited phenotypic changes. The data arising provide the first step in the discovery of new treatments for an endemic infectious disease using locally sourced African medicinal plants.